Exponential Funtions

An exponential function is in which a constant base is raised to a variable power. Exponential functions are used to model changes in population size, in the spread of diseases, and the growth of investments. They can also accurately predict types of decline typified by radioactive decay. The essence of exponential growth, and a characteristic of all exponential growth functions, is that they double in size over regular intervals. The most important exponential function is ex, the inverse of the natural logarithmic function. Some examples of exponential functions in the real world are Ponzi Schemes, Pyramid Schemes, and Chain Letters. Ponzi Schemes are named after Charles Ponzi. They are fraudulent investment plans in which one person takes people’ money as an â€Å"investment† and doesn’t necessarily tell them how their returns will be generated, meaning that people’s returns on investments could be generated by anything. Pyramid Schemes are also fraudulent investment plans. They are structured like a pyramid, starting with one initial recruiter who recruits someone and requires them to pay a fee. In order to make their money back, the new recruit must recruit others under him. This continues until it becomes impossible for the newest layer of recruits to recruit enough people to make their money back. Chain letters are letters that can be received electronically or through snail mail. They aren’t illegal on their own but they can take the form of a pyramid scheme when they ask you to donate a certain amount of money to the people on a list, then delete the name of the first person on the list, add your name, and forward to a certain amount of people. By forwarding, you are asking people to give money with the promise of making money. The schemes work because they seem like they can go on forever but in reality, the scheme can only go on for a certain amount of time before it exceeds the population. When the cycle exhausts itself, participants lose money. These schemes should not be participated in because it is impossible to continue to make more money than you invest.

Religious Truth vs. Scientific Truth Essay

Scientific beliefs have a basis of solid evidence and can been proven using the scientific method and through extensive research. But there is no â€Å"scientific method† for proving religious beliefs. That is, there is no way one could know that a particular, or any religion is â€Å"true† or â€Å"false. † That therefore, raises a question, â€Å"are religious beliefs true in the same sense that scientific beliefs are true? † I believe that since we have no way of telling indefinitely which religion is the â€Å"truth,† that it is simply an important feature of ones personality and outlook on the world, and what they personally choose to believe is â€Å"true† to them. Like Robert Solomon says in â€Å"The Little Philosophy Book,† â€Å"Perhaps one could suggest that religious beliefs are more like aesthetic beliefs; that is, they are just ‘personal’ or, in other words, subjective. They are not literally true but not false either. † In order to determine this conclusion, however, one must look at both the reasons to believe this is true, and also the opposing viewpoint. What religious beliefs are true? If you believe your own to be true you are therefore saying that all others, who believe differently are wrong. But at the same time if you claim that others can be true you are implying that your own is false. And if you claim that neither one is true nor false, but it is an issue of personal belief and simply subjective, then what does that say of the many religious believers who believe that their religion is the true one? That what everyone believes may in fact be false? Personally, I do not believe by suggesting that religious beliefs are personal and that just because someone else believes something differently, that they are false. Religious beliefs are beliefs taught, not seen or proven, but knowing and having faith in their existence. I like the way that Gandhi views religion. His idea of religion was not totally esoteric. He knew that every religion was connected with some belief system supported by rituals and he tried to get rid of the rituals as far as possible and make it more universal. To Gandhi religion was a human institution made my human ingenuity to solve practical affairs as well as spiritual matter. He explained it as trying to climb a mountain. The mountain represented Heaven, or ones idea of it. And it doesn’t matter which side of the mountain you climb, (which religion you practice) but that all religion have the same goal. That coincides with my belief, that although people may have various different religious beliefs, one does not make the other false. It can be said that the only way something, anything, could be absolutely true is with the support of evidence and proof. That is where the opposition of my opinion comes in. Scientific theories can be proven and have â€Å"evidence. † But it is also widely believed that religion too, has â€Å"evidence. † Evidence such as the bible, miracles and scientific studies that show the efficacy of intercessory prayer and the effects of religion on person health. However, this does not necessarily prove one religions beliefs to be true, more so it proves the existence of religion as a whole.

Lending Decision

Coles Group Limited Formerly known as Coles Myer Limited. The Group's principal activities are carried out through the following business segments: Food, Liquor & Fuel, Kmart, Target and Office works. Food, Liquor & Fuel involves retailing grocery, liquor and fuel products. Kmart and Target involve retailing apparel and general merchandise. Office-works involves retailing office supplies. Major brands include Coles, Bi-Lo. Liquor-land, Vintage Cellars, 1st Choice, Theo's, Coles Express, Kmart, Target and Office-works. It operates around 2,600 stores in Australia and New Zealand. It also has branch offices located in China. On 31 March 2006, the Group acquired Sydney Drug Stores Pty Ltd (trading as Pharmacy Direct). On 2 June 2006, it disposed of its Myer business. On 14 June 2006, it completed the acquisition of the Hedley Hotel Group. On 9 November 2006, it divested its Mega-mart stores The most common claim with regard to the importance of money in our everyday life is the morally neutral if comically exaggerated claim that makes the world go round'. Equally exaggerated but showing a deeper insight is the biblical warning that ‘the love of money is the root of all evil', neatly transformed by George Bernard Shaw into the fear that it is rather the lack of money which is the root of all evil. However, whether it is the love or conversely the lack of money which is potentially sinful, the purpose of the statement in either case is to underline the overwhelming personal and moral significance of money to society in a way that gives a broader and deeper insight into its importance than simply stressing its basically economic aspects, as when we say that money makes the world go round'. Consequently whether we are speaking of money in simple, socalled primitive communities or in much more advanced, complex and sophisticated societies, it is not enough merely to examine the narrow economic aspects of money in order to grasp its true meaning. To analyze the significance of money it must be broadly studied in the context of the particular society concerned. It is a matter for the heart as well as for the head: feelings are reasons, too. National currencies are an inadequate form of world money, but at least their use in international transactions avoids the faults of commodity-money. A monetary standard based on strategic commodities, no matter whether gold alone or some combination of raw materials, will always suffer from their relatively inelastic and uncertain supply conditions. Producers of the money commodity will have an outright advantage over others in the marketplace. Even if we reduce the role of the money commodity to that of last-resort reserve and numeraire for exchange rates, as was the case with the gold exchange standard of Bretton Woods, such a hybrid system is prone to break down. Commodity-money and credit-money are essentially incompatible forms of money and do not coexist easily with each other. One or the other will dominate, and each form of dominance will cause its peculiar sources of instability (e.g., inadequate supply of liquidity, loss of convertibility, inequitably distributed adjustment burdens). National currencies are an inadequate form of world money, but at least their use in international transactions avoids the faults of commodity-money. A monetary standard based on strategic commodities, no matter whether gold alone or some combination of raw materials, will always suffer from their relatively inelastic and uncertain supply conditions. Producers of the money commodity will have an outright advantage over others in the marketplace. Even if we reduce the role of the money commodity to that of last-resort reserve and numeraire for exchange rates, as was the case with the gold exchange standard of Bretton Woods, such a hybrid system is prone to break down. Commoditymoney and credit-money are essentially incompatible forms of money and do not coexist easily with each other. One or the other will dominate, and each form of dominance will cause its peculiar sources of instability (e.g., inadequate supply of liquidity, loss of convertibility, inequitably distributed adjustment burdens). By some measures, the real backbone of world commerce and global employment is made up of the millions of unsung small enterprises that farm small plots of land, cook food, provide daycare for children, make clay pots or straw mats by hand, do piecework for apparel makers, and carry out the countless other tasks that larger businesses don't do. In the cities of developing countries, for example, a growing percentage of the working population – sometimes estimated as high as 50 percent – is engaged in microenterprise activity. In the seven countries of southern Africa, there is evidence that small, unregistered enterprises provide work for substantially more people than the â€Å"regular,† legal ones do. In Latin America and the Caribbean, more than 50 million microenterprises employ more than 150 million workers. Even in a wealthy country like the United States, more than a quarter of all employees work for establishments of fewer than 20 people, and those businesses constitute 87 percent of all U.S. business establishments. The tasks these businesses perform cover the whole range of human activity, from the basics of housing and farming to the luxuries of entertainment and tourism. In many parts of the world, microenterprises frequently have only one employee – who is also the owner – or they benefit from the work of family members who are not really employees at all. In wealthy countries, many microenterprises may be larger, up to 10 or 20 people, for example, but still small in comparison to many of their competitors. But throughout the world, what most of these businesses do have in common is a lack of access to resources. They get little help from lawyers or accountants; often they are not able to afford retail space; many of them are not even legally registered as businesses. At almost all American banks, the board delegates loan approval authority to the professional banking staff. Such delegation permits assistant branch managers up to the president to have varying loan authority, from $5,000-$10,000 unsecured to $250,000, $500,000, or even $1 million secured. On top of this, the board often delegates still-higher authorities to loan committees or combinations of loan officers. Using a hypothetical example, if the lending limit of the financial institution is $5 million per borrower, the directors may delegate from $1 up to $1 million to individual officers, officers in tandem, and loan committees. This leaves all loans above $1 million and under $5 million to be approved by the board itself. In essence, the board has set itself as approver of the most sophisticated, most risky, and most complex lending arrangements, while the professional loan staff handles the relatively inexpensive and less-risky loan approvals. Add to this the fact that if the loans go seriously wrong, and the board has approved the loans, then the state and federal regulatory agencies may take remedial actions against the directors. Many financial institutions adopt in-house lending limits which are significantly lower than the lending limit to any one borrower that is legally available. For example, prior to the sale of First of America Bancorp to National City in 1998, the legal lending limit of First of America was $180 million to any one borrower. On the other hand, its board refused to make any loans in excess of $24 million. The directors felt that $24 million was sufficient risk exposure. Several financial institutions have set their in-house lending limit equal to the professional loan committee's lending authority, thus for all intents and purposes eliminating the board as a source of loan approvals. Micro-enterprises are more flexible and mobile than the much larger, more complex and building-bound businesses. They provide part-time work to women and men who also have to take care of families, and seasonal work in places where crops have to be harvested. They require little capital, office space, or startup title. They can thrive in rural areas, thereby slowing the rush to urbanization. Jobs in microenterprises are accessible to immigrants and disenfranchised people who need to moonlight or share jobs. And they are run by women at least as often as men, helping to reverse a pervasive global inequity. Microenterprises also offer an alternative to the conventional strategy for bringing development to poor nations – making large loans to governments for massive power or infrastructure projects. Such project-oriented development has come under growing criticism from grassroots activists, who say the projects often benefit large contractors and central governments more than they help local people. More investment in smaller, local industries, they argue, could bring economic and social benefits at far less cost. Their view is reflected in an old Chinese saying, â€Å"many little things done in many little places by many little people will change the most of the world.† For years, the First National Bank of Omaha, Neb., had a board consisting exclusively of inside professional bankers who made all loan decisions. In these financial institutions the professionals make the loan approval decisions, not the amateurs. Finally, it is up to the board to set the loan authorities and to review such loan authorities per loan officer on an annual or more frequent basis. The board must also revise lending authority by type of lending function, depending upon the size of the financial institution, so as to protect the institution from risky, inappropriate lending by staff members. The board in these cases normally reacts to the recommendations of senior management, especially the senior lending officer, who is in charge of the entire lending function. As we transition away from the high growth years of the past two decades, it's an appropriate time to reflect upon the future of the banking industry. As the economy continues to slow from what has been a remarkable global expansion, the banking industry finds itself in the middle of a dramatic transformation. Several significant trends are impacting key decision-makers of traditional financial institutions, and many are grappling with their role in the New World economy even as they try to reinforce the traditional attributes that have made them competitive. Financial institutions also face challenges on the services-side as there has been a proliferation in the number of customer touch points with the growth of the Internet, wireless, as well as traditional channels such as branches and telephone banking. This has added further pressure on profitability and on increased efficiency. Many boards today are trying to reconcile the need for greater operating efficiency while realizing that traditional channels are not going away any time soon, and at the same time recognizing the need for newer distribution channels to serve the changing demographics. There is also the need to be more creative in offering traditional and non-traditional banking and other products. This need complements the need for new revenue streams particularly non-interest fee income sources. Additionally, there is a keen acknowledgement that banks must know a lot more about their customers so they can serve them better and more profitably. Most traditional institution brands are built around service, trust and community. These are fundamental attributes that financial institutions have enjoyed for over a century. Brand strength will become increasingly important as institutions compete for customers. Brand identity will become more important because choices among customers will increase, making it more important for your target audience to differentiate between competitors. Financial institutions will differentiate on service, trust or serving a particular community or demographic set. Their brand recognition and identity will be increasingly important to their customers and will enable them to filter through the competition. REFERENCES Micro-Enterprises, Magazine article by Hal Kane; World Watch, Vol. 9, March-April 1996 The Role of the Board in Lending, Part 1 of 3 Parts: Reexamining Directors' Role in the Lending Process, Journal article by Dr. Douglas V. Austin; ABA Banking Journal, Vol. 94, 2002. The Future of Banking and the Role of Technology, Journal article by Louis Hernandez Jr., Michael D. Nicastro; ABA Banking Journal, Vol. 93, 2001. The Role of Social Capital in Development: An Empirical Assessment, Book by Christiaan Grootaert, Thierry Van Bastelaer; Cambridge University Press, 2002 Competitive Industrial Development in the Age of Information: The Role of Cooperation in the Technology Sector , Book by Richard J. Braudo, Jeffrey G. Macintosh; Routledge, 1999   

Most Effective Communication Interpersonal Communication Essay

Most Effective Communication Interpersonal Communication - Essay Example In this paper we are going to discuss effective interpersonal communication and how it helps in developing effective communication in our lives. We are also going to study roles of self-disclosure, non-verbal communication and listening in building effective interpersonal communication. For this purpose we will be considering three aspects of interpersonal communication and how these branches of communication are connected to have an effective communication. What is interpersonal communication? McCornack (2012) defines interpersonal communication as a dynamic form of communication between two (or more) people in which the messages exchanged significantly influence their thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and relationships. It is a process of give and take and is extremely impactful. Communication is multi-dimensional. Various aspects such as nonverbal communication, self-disclosure, and listening impact interpersonal communication great deal. To understand correlation of these key concepts, we have to understand definitions of these concepts. Self-disclosure –Revealing private information about yourself to others is known as self-disclosure (McCornack, 2012). How much information you are willing to share about yourself plays a pivotal role in building relationships with people. We are not very comfortable about sharing our personal experiences and life events with anyone as we fear that it could alter the image I have created in the mind of the listener. However it is also observed that in interpersonal communication, effective self-disclosure along with implicit trust has often helped strengthening relationships and mutual understanding. Wood (2007) states that one way to get information about yourself is through self-disclosure, which is revealing information about ourselves that others are unlikely to discover on their own. Self-disclosure is an important way to learn about ourselves. Wood suggests that as we reveal our hopes, fears, dreams, and feelings, we get responses from others that give us new perspectives on who we are. In addition, we gain insight into ourselves by seeing how we interact with others in new situations. Nonverbal communication – communication that happens without saying a word written or oral is nonverbal communication (McCornack, 2012). We say so many things with the help of gestures, eyes and body language. As nonverbal cues keep giving away what is going on in our minds, it is often said that we c annot communicate. Hence we do not believe only on words said in communication, and it becomes imperative that it is accompanied by appropriate body language. Knapp and Daly (2002) state that interpersonal communication scholars have probably always recognized the vital contributions of proxemics, kinesic, olfactory, vocal, and verbal signs to the understanding of interpersonal communication, but the early emphasis was clearly on verbal behaviour. As the number of scholars studying non-verbal behaviour increased, it gradually became a separate area of study. Moreover, Knapp and Daly (2002) report that the study of verbal behaviour and non-verbal behaviour appeared, for practical purposes, to be independent of one another. Listening – listening is not hearing words. It is hearing words, understanding their context, processing them and reacting or offering

Human beings' activity with global warming Essay

Human beings' activity with global warming - Essay Example The most notable of all greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide, which has the capability to continue being in the atmosphere for a lengthy time span. It is a scientifically proven fact that this gas could bring about a noteworthy rise in the temperature. At this point, it is but obvious to raise the question â€Å"No doubt, carbon dioxide is a very potent gas; but how are human beings responsible for rise in the levels of this gas?† The subsequent paragraph would be attempting to answer this. (1) Human beings, purely for furthering their own interests, have brought about a drastic rise in the levels at which fossil fuels are combusted. This has been for the purposes of generating electricity, heating, transportation and cement manufacturing, among many others. It is being estimated that, on account of all these activities, the annual carbon dioxide emissions are approximately 22 billion tons, on a global basis. Almost as a direct result of that, the atmospheric concentration of ca rbon dioxide has risen by roughly thirty percent. As a matter of fact, these facts are more than sufficient to convince even the most skeptical that it is nothing other than human activity predominantly responsible for heightened global warming. (1) Scientists have estimated that during the course of the last century, there has been a rise in temperature of surface of Earth to the extent of one degree Fahrenheit. The fact has been highlighted that in this very duration there is also a 25 percent increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. It has been mentioned earlier in the write-up that the enhanced levels of carbon dioxide are chiefly attributable to various human activities. Extensive studies aimed at understanding the link between the above rise in temperature and increase in carbon dioxide concentration came out with a key observation: human activity is mainly responsible for the scenario where the Planet has become warmer. (2) Simultaneously, the scientist s also suggested that even some natural parameters could have played a role in global warming. In fact, with regard to the pattern of global warming, the scientists have divided the previous century into two halves. They state that, when the warming of the first half is taken into account, the natural factors must have been primarily responsible for the advent of the phenomenon. This is because; in that particular phase, various human activities resulting in carbon dioxide emissions were on the lower side. But when the second half of the century (1900-2000) is considered, it is but obvious that human beings are the chief contributors to the rise in global warming. In this period, the diverse commercial pursuits of people have led to an alarming rise in the levels of carbon dioxide emissions, and this is a fact beyond any dispute. So, it can safely be inferred that the natural parameters did not have a major role in global warming, with regard to the second part (of the century). (3) The following are some of the activities that have led to the advent of a scenario where, there is a disturbing rise in the greenhouse emissions: various agricultural practices,

Brain and Physical Injuries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Brain and Physical Injuries - Essay Example The researchers found that most of the family members were less psychologically distressed. However, people suffering from brain injury had poorer psychological outcomes than their relatives did. The study also found that spouses of patients with brain injury were subjected to trauma and psychological distress. Bell, Kathleen R., Nancy Temkin R., Peter Esselman C., Jason Doctor N., Charles Bombardier S., Robert Fraser T., Jeanne Hoffman M., Janet Powell M., and Sureyya Dukem. â€Å"The Effect of a Scheduled Telephone Intervention on Outcome after Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: A Randomized Trial.† Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 86.5 (2005): 851-856. Print. The authors studied the effectiveness of telephone interventions in counseling and education for brain injury patients. These interventions, coming from home, were compared with the standard follow-ups conducted after one year. The researchers found that constant telephone interventions made patients feel better than interventions that come after a long time. Esser, E., Valencia, E., Conover, S., Felix, A., Tsai, W.Y. and Wyatt, R. J. â€Å"Preventing recurrent homelessness among mentally ill men: a "critical time" intervention after discharge from a shelter.† American Journal of Public Health 87.2 (2007): 256-262. Print. The authors set out to establish strategies that can protect mentally ill persons from becoming homeless. They sought a bridge between community care and mental institutions. They sampled 96 men with severe mental illness, including brain injury and gave them critical care in an institution. The researchers discovered that most of the men longed for home and families despite the good care they received at the institution. The researchers sought to determine the factors that predict family system functioning after one member of the family experiences brain injury. The

Organization strategy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organization strategy - Research Paper Example Facts and Problems: Issues on Leadership, Group Dynamics and Motivation At the moment, the leadership structure of the organization is non-functional. The Objectives and goals of the organization have no enforcing authority. Specifically, the human resource department and training and development department need deeper focus. All the workers are discouraged, without morale and have no clear sense of purpose in the organization. The organization functions in a particularly individualistic and divided manner with no sense of accountability whatsoever. This is seen by the fact that workers do not offer quality service and work in a hurry so that they can attend personal issues. Consequences and Analysis of that problem: The leadership gap has led to recklessness within the organization. Workers have no sense of accountability since people are free to do whatever they wish. Some departments are entirely non functional. The human resource management hires unqualified personnel. This has d estroyed the reputation of the organization. The ill motivated workers have no value for their work. Many keep on resigning because there is no reward management system. Those who are left have no valued for their work. This has resulted in the loss of lives, as reflected in the rise in mortality rates in cardiovascular related cases. The organization has not embraced teamwork. People are individualistic and work for their selfish gain. This has caused the organization to be fragmented and to lack a sense of purpose. No department co-works with another. The organization has no collaborations and its goes and objectives are unclear. The main aims To lift the position of the organization so that it can achieve that goals, missions and objectives that have been set. The leadership structure needs to be functional and productive. This includes being the leading organization in service delivery and high quality treatment. This shall entail a relook into the strategies, establishing a vib rant organizational image and a motivated workforce. These goals are achievable. Change is always met by a few barriers which need to be overcome. Every organization has a culture. This culture helps the organization in achieving its goals and targets. Culture is essentially the accepted ways of doing things in a particular organizational set up. The organization has a culture where people are not used to organize systematic and functional group. Therefore, every worker is a stranger to the colleague in terms of professionalism. Workers have accepted underperforming as part of their lives. This is so because there is not accountability within the hospital. This makes it hard to introduce changes. There are extreme barriers to change because the leadership at departmental level in incompetence. This indicates that they are incapable of dissecting or executing any meaningful changes within the departments of the hospital. Under the departmental leaders are ill trained employees who ar e not motivated. Employees who have no morale cannot spearhead or enact change, (Klubeckne & Padget, 2009). Employees follow the direction of their leaders. The departments have no working policies. Unfairness among the departmental heads leads to resentment and dysfunctional departments within the hospital. Employees go for long without training or refresher courses. The department involved with procurement is ill trained. This has caused

Bullying at School Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bullying at School - Essay Example When a student embarrasses, ridicules or scorns another student it is harassment, bullying or teasing. (Harber, 2004) Bullying can take many forms-physical violence, threats, name-calling, sarcasm, spreading rumors, persistent teasing, and exclusion from a group, tormenting, ridicule, humiliation and abusive comments. All are a form of violence. Teacher-pupil bullying also exists. Pupil-pupil bullying is a common problem in schools internationally. Though there are variations in the types of bullying perpetrated, bullying is carried out by both males and females and both males and females are the victims. However, apparently schools play no part in creating it and do their best to put an end to it. Schools can play a large part in actually creating the problem of bullying. For example, lower achieving pupils, belittled in the competitive atmosphere, may strive to regain some dignity through bullying. It is also pointed out that while school sport has the potential for learning team spirit, giving your best and shared endeavor, it can also exclude those who do not excel and it can become brutish with over-competitiveness, over-stressing the body and the promotion of aggression and violence. While all children who are treated brutally do not go on to become bully because there are often countervailing and modifying socialization influences, and because they do not have the opportunity, serious damage can be done to individuals and the results can negatively affect societies. The second, related idea is that authoritarianism and its emphasis on automatic obedience to orders is very dangerous as it conditions and permits individuals to carry out violent acts by proving a justification or legitimating for them. Many individual acts of violence have been carried out and justified in the name of the duty to obey. Types of Violence Bullies normally resort to various types of violence they often subject victims to, like physical manhandling and mental and emotional harassment. One important aspect of this can include various forms of sexual harassment-verbal sexual aggression, the threat of sexual abuse, unsolicited physical contact and enforced sexual interference. The underlying authoritarian and patriarchal context of direct sexual violence in schooling and its role in reproducing hegemonic forms of violent masculinity are often more hurting for the bullied children. the teachers appeared to pursue their amorous activities both inside and outside the classroom quite openly; in the classroom, boys and girls would whistle or hiss if a teacher called on a particular girl known to be of interest to him to read out loud or come in front of the class. Boys were loud in their condemnation of such teachers, not for moral reasons but because they saw it as unfair competition. (Harber, 2004) Moreover, male teachers who behave in this way are indicating to boys that such behavior is acceptable. Some key findings of the research were: - Sexual abuse of girls by girls by male pupils and teachers is accepted along with corporal punishment, verbal abuse and bullying, as an inevitable part of much of school life. It exploits unequal power relationships and the

Research Paper (How conflicts effect an economy, focusing on

(How conflicts effect an economy, focusing on Afghanistan) - Research Paper Example Development indicators are some variables to measure when determining the level of a country’s economic growth. For instance, life expectancy can be a development indicator, and it is a variable that is easy to measure. Another hypothesis in this study can focus on conflict conditions that affect economic development. In this case, the hypothesis can be "conflicts leads to political instability creating conditions that do not favor economic growth". This can be an alternative hypothesis and the reason for setting for the research question is that it gives measurable variables. It is easy to conduct interviews and collect opinions of the Afghanistan business people about what political instability implies for their investment. Therefore, the research has both general and alternative hypothesis and prefers them since the variables easy to measure. The research will not be complete without good conceptualization of the design and approach to the study. In the conceptualization stage, researchers attempt to define their study to the details or they make it as clear as possible2. In this case, it will be necessary to dig deep about conflicts. The word conflict has different meanings depending on the context that individuals use it. In general terms, conflict refers to the state of disagreement between two or more people. In civic terms, a conflict refers to differences in ideologies between one or two people. However, the term conflicts bring the image of battle and wars in the country, society or a community. Therefore, this study refers to conflicts in terms of war and raging battles. The aspect of conflicts that the study seeks to cover is economic implications of wars and battles. In the Afghanistan for instance, conflicts have been responsible for many problems in the country ranging from insecurity to slow economic growth. Conflicts in this context refer to the situation where the country

DQ5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

DQ5 - Essay Example If the data has some extreme values, then median becomes the most accurate measure of central tendency. However, one weakness of median is that it cannot be applied to raw-data and the data has to arranged in ascending or descending order. This indicates that this measure is time consuming and when data is very large it is very difficult to first arrange it in ascending order and then arrive at median. Mode is considered appropriate for nominal data and can be calculated very easily by observation. There are no calculations required when computing mode and hence it is very quick. The only disadvantage with mode is that it gives the least accurate answer and hence people do not use it despite it being the easiest measure of center or central tendency. Measures of dispersion describe the spread of data. Some of these measures include range, variance and standard deviation. It includes measures such as range, standard deviation and variance. The advantage of range is that it is very simple and tells you the spread of data. However, since it is dependent on just two values, the answer is not the fairest representation of the distribution. Another very important measure of dispersion is standard deviation. Since it includes all the values of the observation it is most likely to give a good and accurate answer. But, as the numbers are squared in computing standard deviation, the extreme values get more weightage and answer is distorted. Similarly, variance is another good measure as it includes all the values in a observation. The only weakness of variance is that it is very time consuming as each observation has to be squared. The number of observations that fall into a particular class is call the frequency or count of that class. Frequency distribution is a table that lists all class and their frequencies in a systemized manner. This table tells us at a glance that how many times a particular observation has been seen in our

Social, Political, and Organizational Factors Essay

Social, Political, and Organizational Factors - Essay Example Though Hispanics constitute the major ethnic minority populace in the US, they have no access to health care provisions, and appropriate healthcare system In this regard, two important factors are to be considered (1). Hispanics are less expected to search for and obtain health-care services and system, which might donate to their inferior health status and high rates of mortality and morbidity (2). To evaluate dissimilarities in access to the most appropriate health-care facilities and precautionary services among non-Hispanics and Hispanics, with CDC examined 2001--2002 information from Behavioral Risk Feature Surveillance Scheme (BRFSS) surveys. 2. Briefly discuss the social and political influences behind this disparity. Does this population have one or more of the risk factors that Shi and Stevens (2010) identify? Offer evidence that supports your assertions. Social and political factors affect Hispanic’s admittance to preventive services as well as the major influences behind the disparity. Disparities in making use of various preventive services by ethnic or racial characteristics have been recognized; minority inhabitants, such as Hispanics, are less expected than non-Hispanics in getting preventive services. This report reveals that these disparities in access to screening practices and health-care among Hispanics and non-Hispanics still persist. Shi and Stevens (2010), identify that population as a whole have one or more risk factors. The health of a population is affected by its economic and social circumstances and the health care services it obtains. On an average, the socioeconomic position of Hispanics in the US is significantly lower than that of non-Hispanic whites. Hispanics also face various barriers in obtaining health care services of extremely high quality. Some of these obstacles occur due to their low socioecono mic position; others obstacle are due to various specific aspects of the Hispanic

William Faulkner’s Life and Writings Essay Example for Free

William Faulkner’s Life and Writings Essay William Faulkner is one of the great American writers of the 20th century. He has written several highly-acclaimed novels, short stories and poems and was among the pioneers who revolutionized storytelling through the use of the stream of consciousness technique, something not common during the time. His works are considered brilliant and remain to be among the required studies for literature in colleges and universities in the United States as well as other English speaking countries. Faulkner’s literary accolades are numerous. He won two Pulitzer Prizes for his 1954 novel A Fable, which received the Pulitzer a year later, and for his 1962 novel, The Reivers, which was posthumously awarded the Pulitzer in 1963. In 1949, or three years before his first Pulitzer, Faulkner received the Nobel Prize for his powerful and artistically unique contribution to the modern American novel. But the journey to literary success was never â€Å"a walk in the clouds†, or so to speak, for William Faulkner who struggled to get recognition for his earlier works. His first book, a collection of poems entitled The Marble Faun, published in 1924 did not immediately hit the mark as it barely got any serious attention from readers. It is also said that it was during this time that William Faulkner decided to change the original spelling of his family name to make it â€Å"sound more British† for the publication of his first book. His real family name came from an old Customer’s last name 2 Southern family named Falkner from New Albany, Mississippi where the novelist was born on September 25, 1897, as the eldest of four sons. But Faulkner spent most of his life at the nearby town of Oxford, Mississippi where his family moved when he was barely five years old. Much of his inspirations for his work were drawn from his personal experiences. And his views were tangible in many of his writings especially those that probe the prejudices of his own region, the deep South. Faulkner started writing novels on 7th Grade at about the same time he lost interest in school after he found the classes boring. His first themes were romance inspired by her childhood sweetheart and later wife, Estelle Oldham. Faulkner remained married to her until his death in July 6, 1962 but his family seems to come only second to his writing, which he puts at the center of his life. In an interview for Writer’s at Work: The Paris Review Interview in 1959, Faulkner described how important his writings to him. He remarked: The writers only responsibility is to his art. He will be completely ruthless if he is a good one. He has a dream. It anguishes him so much he must get rid of it. He has no peace until then. Everything goes by the board: honor, pride, decency, security, happiness, all, to get the book written. If a writer has to rob his mother, he will not hesitate; the Ode on a Grecian Urn is worth any number of old ladies. (Writers at Work: The Paris Review Interviews, 1959) Faulkner’s statement in that interview glared what was already apparent and clear all along to his family, friends, and the people who work closely with the reclusive writer. When Faulkner released his third novel, Sartoris (Flags in the Dust), in 1929, he used his great-grandfather William Clark Falkner, himself a colonel in the American Civil War, as the Customer’s last name 3 model for Colonel John Sartoris. The novel deals with the decay of an aristocratic Southern family following the social upheaval of the American Civil War. This novel is a good example of how the novelist’s life is reflected on his writings. It shows that Faulkner was influenced by the history of his family and the region in which they lived. A critical examination of Faulkner’s masterpieces such as The Sound and the Fury, As I lay Dying, Absalom, Absalom! and A Rose for Emily will reveal that his main focus, as a writer, is to explore and expose the deterioration of values in his own region. Faulkner wrote with such sensitivity of the moral degradation he has witnessed. In the sense, Faulkner is a historian who provided an overcast view of a segment of America during a tumultuous period that demanded radical social change. And albeit his works were fictions, it mirrored the horrendous realities of a society diminishing in its traditional values and unable to embrace the dawn of modern realities. Most of Faulkner’s stories were set in Yoknapatawpha County, a fictional place after his own Lafayete County. The town of Jefferson is within Yoknapatawpha County and is the equivalent of Oxford, the novelist’s hometown. While the setting may not be original, it was easy for Faulkner to provide a vivid description of his settings and characters he based from non-fictions or from something he has intimate knowledge on. Aside from Faulkner’s hometown being modeled for the fictional setting in his writings, it was suggested that some characters from his works were inspired by real people and biblical characters like the 19th century politician Jacob Thomson for the character of Jason Compson III from his The Sound and the Fury novel and the character of Benjamin Compson from the same novel which is said to symbolize a Christ-figure while in his Pulitzer winner novel, A Fable, his main character Corporal Zsettslani Customer’s last name 4 is representative of Jesus. This method made it easy for Faulkner to personalize the characters in his stories. Faulkner’s strong sense of moral and social responsibility is also very much visible in his works. He often deals with the transgression of the Southern whites against the Black with tragic bluntness to denigrate a blatant social aberrant. In a way, Faulkner was the greatest admirer and critic of the Southern life and history. He absorbed the sordid and brilliant, blithe and painful history of the South and transposed it into soul poetry. Moreover, Faulkner also tried to advocate, albeit tacitly, for the preservation of culture and the environment in his writings. In his 1942 novel, The Bear, Faulkner lamented the encroachment of civilization into the natural world. The novel is a tale of initiation into the adult world set against a backdrop of a yearly hunting expedition of Old Ben, a bear believed to be last of its kind in Mississippi woods. The narrative is also about the young Ike McCaslin coming to know both the woods and himself through the help of an old Chickasaw who is symbolically named Sam Fathers (Castor 37). In Faulkner’s narrative, the death of Sam Fathers is symbolically linked to the death of the bear and the wilderness (Castor 38). To Faulkner, the economic conquest of the southern landscape was inextricably linked, not only to the conquest of blacks and women through the legacy of slavery, but also to the conquest of Indian cultures as represented by Sam Fathers. (Castor 39) The Bear was written by Faulkner at the time when there is a tremendous environmental upheaval in Mississippi and the South. There was massive deforestation activity and thousands of acres of land are being cleared for timber. The setting, the plot, and the character in The Bear Customer’s last name 5 reflect an historical development and Faulkner was able to relate his sentiments with what is happening in his writings. Faulkner was a brilliant writer who examines his environment and reflects on his life experiences for inspirations in his writings. Much of the plot and the theme of his novels were based on his hindsight on the degeneration of the values of the Sought. Through his tragic stories, Faulkner was able to depict â€Å"the effect of the dissolution of the traditional values and authority on all levels of Southern society†. His novels were rich of his views, sentiments, experiences and personal convictions. He was never very famous as a writer for most part of his life but he has dedicated his life to this profession. He was a reclusive and a taciturn writer who found comfort in his solitude. But in his writings, he spoke volumes and his voice holds a resonating sound for many more generations to hear. He was a legend in the world of literature and his stories are immortalize by its unforgettable characters, unbelievable and challenging stories and the unique manner these stories were told that continues to captivate millions of followers. Faulkner told many great stories but along with it, he told the story of his life too. The challenge is to continue to unravel the mystery and discover how of much his own story was told in his many great masterpieces. Customer’s last name 6 Works cited Nobelprize. org. William Faulkner Biography. Retrieved December 21, 2007 frm http://nobelprize. org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1949/faulkner-bio. html Reference. com. William Faulkner. Retrieved December 21, 2007 from http://www. reference. com/search? q=william%20faulkner Castor, L. Hunting History and Myth in Linda Hogan’s Power and William Faulkner’s The Bear. Retrieved December 21, 2007 from http://www. hum. uit. no/nordlit/12/03_Castor. pdf William Faulkner on the Web. Retrieved December 21, 2007 from http://www. mcsr. olemiss. edu/~egjbp/faulkner/faulkner. html

Traditional Budgeting in Modern Business

Traditional Budgeting in Modern Business The essay below is an attempt to analyse the issue of Traditional budgeting and discusses the fact that how now-a-days formal, traditional budgeting does not prove quite apt for modern businesses. To begin with, the essay will give a brief explanation of what is a budget and what is budgeting. This will be followed by a short note on modern budgeting and there will be a concise induction on traditional budgeting. Furthermore, the essay will throw light on the strengths and weaknesses of traditional budgeting; following which it will explain and evaluate the alternatives to traditional budgeting in modern businesses. A budget is a business plan for the short term-typically one year(Atrill McLaney,2007) . It is mainly expressed in financial terms and it is designed to meet strategic purposes. Budgeting plays a vital role in business success as it helps in the organizations operational planning, performance evaluation, communication of goals, strategy formation, and controlling cost which helps the organization to achieve its overall objective. But it seems it is unsuitable for the modern business.The term modern business stands for a business which operates in a global economy and practises all modern techniques to survive in a highly competitive environment. In todays era of information technology, it is impossible for a business to compete globally without continuous innovation, updated information and controlled activity. In management accounting, budgeting is quite a vast and important concept. There are different kinds of budgeting. The essay will now focus on Traditional budgeting and its working in modern businesses. What is traditional budgeting? Budget is a part of strategic planning process. It lays down business objectives, targets and decides activities required to achieve these objectives. Traditional budgeting is based on previous year data, decisions, uncertain estimates and forecast (Drury,2009).Traditional budgeting is basically one year planning which lays down targets for the business and at the end of the year these targets are compared with actual results and deviations, if any, are reported to the budgeting team which uses them as an important source of information for current year budgeting. Traditional budgeting creates boundaries for the business operations and sets targets for its employees, which motivates employees to work hard and earn rewards for their achievement. Importance of Traditional Budgeting: Kennedy and Dugdale (1999) in his study on budgeting found out that 99% of all companies in Europe still using formal budgeting system. Budgeting provides a direction which can be used as a framework for planning and controlling the overall activity of the business. Budgeting is often used as an important tool for controlling cost and expenditure of the business, which is very essential for an organization to survive in a competitive world. It is also used as a tool to maintain liquidity position of the firm by matching business revenue against expenditure, which gives an actual position and requirement of cash at a definite time period. Kennedy and Dugdale (2009) in his study also points out that it is the multiple function of budgeting which makes it an important tool for management. Budgeting provides a system of authorization, a means of forecasting and planning, it also provides a channel of communication and coordination through which the actions of different parts of an organi zation can be brought together and reconciled into a common plan. Kennedys study also states that budgeting serves as a tool of motivation, a system of evaluation and control, which acts as a useful source of information for decision- making. Limitations of Traditional budgeting: Budgeting is always being criticized for its high cost and the longer time it takes for its preparation. These two limitations are always a point of consideration for modern business organizations, which require a long working of financial managers and which incurs heavy charges on the company. In addition to this, budgeting is criticized in many other aspects as well. Dugdale and Lyne (2006) in his study on budgeting points out that budgeting being an important tool for an organization has many limitations like, it meets only the lowest targets, it uses more resources than required, it competes against other divisions, business units and departments, also it spends only what is in the budget, provides inaccurate forecasts, has motives only to meet the budget but not to beat it and finally it also avoids risk element. Bourne et al. (2002) conducted a survey on limitations of traditional budgeting in which he criticizes traditional budgeting on a number of issues. From the survey resu lt, he pointed out the following criticisms against budgeting ; its time consuming, costly, restricts flexibility in operation, its very often focused on target and often misaligned with strategy, it focuses more on cost rather than value creation, it often encourages gaming between superiors and subordinates, it is hardly updated and is based on unrealistic assumptions and guesswork which make it unsuitable for modern business. Traditional budgeting and modern business: Budgets have long had a bad press, but they have attracted even more flak recently for being at best inappropriate to modern business practice and at worst potentially harmful (Marginson and Ogden,2005). Hope (2000), in his study on traditional budgeting, points out four important reasons of incapability of traditional budgeting in modern business. he pointed out that in modern business, innovation is more essential rather than incremental, focuses more on faster learning rather than faster working, customer focus is on product satisfaction rather than increasing sale and knowledge- sharing and use of talent given more importance, rather than physical or financial capital. Modern business requires innovation along with cost saving in order to be competitive enough to fight with its rival company. Marginson and Ogden (2005) in his study on budgeting and innovation argues how firms are balancing the need to control costs on the one hand with the pursuit of innovation on the other. That is, modern business is an era of global business and competition which requires continuous innovation and huge spending on R D for its survival. And if modern business follows the budgeting tool it will restrict the business from spending a huge amount on innovation and this becomes a major criticism of budgeting. Hopes Fraser, 1999a, cited in Ekholm and Wallin (2000) added that traditional budgeting is incapable of meeting the demand of the competitive environment in the information age. This means, traditional budgeting is a useful accounting model with its focus on command and control but it lacks in providing useful updated information like market changes, change in taste and preference, change in technology, etc. which makes traditional budgeting unsuitable for modern business. Traditional budgeting is a time consuming process and therefore fails in reflecting changes fails in the companys organization process. As a result it produces inadequate variance reports leaving the how and when question unanswered. That is, it ignores shareholders value and focuses more on short term financial numbers. It follows a risk avoiding culture and therefore faces a false sense of security as a yearly, rigid process and as being a toy of the accounting department.( Hopes Fraser, 1999a, cited in Ekholm and Wallin, 2000). Ekholm and wallin (2000) in his study about budget found out that traditional budget seems to be a burden, and therefore must be removed from financial reports, before improving financial performance. Dugdale and Lyne (2006) say that if companies want to meet the modern business challenges then they must dismantle their rigid command and control structure, which means scrapping their budget and should adopt a policy of radical decentralization and implement appropriate key performance indicators, scorecards and rolling forecast. Alternatives to budgeting: Traditional budgeting is described as a Bane of Corporate America and a tool of repression, by modern businesses which look for alternatives. Rolling forecasts produced on a monthly or quarterly basis, are suggested to be the main alternative to the annual budget (Arterion 1998, Hope and Fraser 1990-20 cited in Ekholm and Wallin, 2000). Limitations of traditional budgeting give rise to many beyond budgeting techniques. Fanning (2000), in his article titled evolution or Revolution, explained beyond budgeting as a technique that restrict gaming, focuses on other business performance in addition to financial performance and uses insightful forecasts that accurately predict companys performance for a shorter period of time like, rolling forecast. In addition there are some better budgeting techniques like, zero based budgeting, activity based budgeting, process based budgeting and performance based budgeting. Rolling forecast serves as a best alternative to traditional budgeting, as stated earlier. In this the budget is prepared for a short period of time which ranges from a month to a year. The main advantage of this method i s that it encourages the manager of a company to look ahead and review their plans on a regular basis. Zero based budgeting is also emerged as a good alternative to incremental budgets. Unlike traditional budgeting zero based budgeting justifies and prioritizes all the activities before allocating amount of resources to them. In addition it focuses on activities instead of functional department which is a feature of traditional budgeting (Drury, 2008). Activity based budgeting authorize the supply of only those resources that are needed to perform activities required to meet the budget production and sales volume. This overcome traditional budgeting limitation which works on incremental basis to predict year expenses on the basis of last year expenses. Traditional budget systems focus on expenditures. Performance Based Budgeting focuses on final result by fixing desired performances goal to each department. The purpose of Performance-Based Budgeting is to provide a sound basis, upon which resource allocation decisions can be done; to communicate the measurable results expected to be achieved from a budget allocation; and to build a connection between budget and program performance results for the same operational unit over same period of measurement. Importance of budgeting in modern business: Dugdale and Hanseen ( two writers ) from their study on find out that in budgeting; operational planning, performance evaluation, communication of goals and strategy formation are the important functions which help it in being alive in modern business. Ekholm and Wallin (2000) from a questionnaire survey on budgeting stated that traditional budgeting is needed in modern business as it is an important tool for maintaining internal effectiveness which is needed to maintain long term equilibrium position of the company. He also finds out that modern business still requires traditional budgeting because its targets cant be set for the people. This means that, no control and no performance evaluation can be done. Hanseen and Van der Stede (2004) from his study on Multiple facets of budgeting finds out that there are different reasons to budgeting like market related performance (sales growth, market share) and internal operation related performance (cost effectiveness, quality), which see ms to be important reason for its wide use in modern business as it will help company to achieve competitive advantage over its rival. Dugdale and Lyne (2006) as a conclusion of case study point out that budget is an important tool to set resources limit for function such as service and RD, which will help business to make efficient use of their limited resources that will lead to success for a company in this competitive world. Conclusion: After a detailed study about budgeting it can be concluded here that, budgeting is an important tool for any business organization which helps the organization in operational planning, performance evaluation, communication of goal, strategy formulation and fixing targets which serve as a basis for organizational working and control. Inspite of its importance in organization, its become a matter of great concern to change or abandon traditional budgeting from modern business. It is because of some budgeting limitations which make it somehow rigid to be used in flexible and compatible modern business. It can be seen that traditional budgeting lacks in providing updated information, flexible operations, restricts huge expenditure on innovation and in addition to this, it is time consuming and a costly method, which binds a company to a 12 month agreement with budgeting expenditure and income list which restrict flexibility of modern business. On the other hand, budgeting helps modern bu sinesses in setting their targets for the year and cost controlling measures which play a vital role in the competitive market. So, seeing budgeting limitations and benefits to modern business, many economists and business managers suggest that traditional budgeting is an important tool which cannot be fully removed from an organization but some changes or beyond budgeting techniques like rolling forecast budgeting, zero based budgeting, activity based budgeting, process based budgeting and performance based budgeting, help in solving business organization problem. Refrences Atrill, P and McLaney, E.(2008). Accounting And Finance For Non- Specialists. England: FT Prentice Hall. Bourne M, Neely A and Heyns H (2002) Lore Reform, Financial Management,January,p.23. Drury, C. (2009). Management Accounting For Business.UK: South- Western. Dugdale, D. and Lyne, s.(2006)Are budgets still needed?, Financial Management, November,pp 32-35. Ekholm B and Wallin J(2000), Is the annual budget really dead? The European Accounting Review,volume 9,number 4,pages 519-539. Fanning J (2000) Evolution or Revolution?,Accountancy, October. Hansen, S.C. and Van der Stede, W.A. (2004), Multiple facets of budgeting: an exploratory analysis, Management Accounting Research vol. 15, pp 415-439. Hope T (2000), Conflict Resolution, Accountancy, November. Kennedy A and Dugdale D (1999), Getting the most from budgeting, Management Accounting, February. Maginson, D. and Orden, S. (2005)Budgeting and Innovation, Financial Management, April, pp 29-31.

NMDA Receptor Pathways as Drug Targets in CNS Therapeutics

NMDA Receptor Pathways as Drug Targets in CNS Therapeutics 1. Introduction: Glutamate is the king of excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system (SNC) and acts on receptors located at the presynaptic terminal and in the postsynaptic membrane at synapses in the brain and spinal cord (Ghasemi and Schachter, 2011). Although glutamate was known to have central nervous system effects for more than 75 years, it was not until 1984 that it was truly acknowledged as fulfilling the criteria of a neurotransmitter. (Niciu et al., 2012). Glutamate receptors are divided into two broad categorizations: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Ionotropic glutamate receptors are ion channels that flux cations (Ca2+, Na+) and open the channels in response to agonist binding. On the other hand, metabotropic receptors activate or inhibit second messenger systems via interactions with cognate G-proteins. (Niciu et al., 2012). Ionotropic glutamate receptors can be subdivided into three large families: AMPA receptors (AMPARs), kainate receptors and NMDA receptors (NMD ARs). Since three decades ago, the discovery NMDARs have kept fascinating neuroscientists while their dysfunctions are also involved in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, including stroke, pathological pain, neurodegenerative diseases and schizophrenia. (Paoletti et al., 2013) Fortunately, the NMDA receptor complex is composed with modulatory sites, and the late 1970s and 1980s saw the development of agonists, antagonists and modulators acting at different binding sites. In the last decade, the molecular biology of the NMDA receptors has been defined, and now it is known that these receptors are formed of an NR1 subunit in combination with one or more NR2 or less commonly an NR3 subunit. (Kemp and McKernan, 2002). 2. Molecular mechanisms NMDA receptors are named after their selective agonist N-methyl-D-aspartate. The receptors are multisubunit complexes associating NR1, NR2 and, more rarely, NR3 subunits. NR2 and NR3 subunits exist as four and two subtypes, respectively (NR2A-D and NR3A-B). NR1 exists as seven subtypes (NR1a–g) (Mony et al., 2009) The receptors are heterotetramers comprising a combination of NR1, NR2A-D and  NR3A-B subunits. The main agonists are glutamate and NMDA, with their binding site on NR2 subunits, while the binding site for the co-agonists D-serine and glycine is located on NR1 and NR3 subunits and the T most common composition of NMDA receptors includes two NR1 and two NR2 subunits, or two NR1, one NR2 and one NR3 subunits (Dzamba et al., 2013). A common structure for glutamate receptors contains an extracellular amino-terminal domain (ATD) for various modulatory functions, extracellular S1S2 domains for agonist binding, an ion channel domain with four transmembrane segments (M1â⠂¬â€œ4) for gating and ion permeation, and a carboxy-terminal domain for communicating with intracellular milieu Fig 1 (Majdi and Chen, 2009). Pharmacological regulation of the NMDAR depends on effects on unique combinations of subunit-specific binding sites. Once glycine coagonist attaches to its site, the glutamate can activate the ion channel and the Na+ and Ca2+ rush in. The Mg2+ blocks channel pore and the blockade is relieved by cellular depolarization, which has implications for synaptic plasticity, especially long-term potentiation (LTP). (Ghasemi and Schachter, 2011) Most compounds that act at NMDA receptors interact with one of 4 drug binding sites on the NMDA receptor complex, the glutamate or glycine binding sites, the ion channel pore, or a binding site on the regulatory NTD. The first compounds identified were agonists and antagonists of the glutamate like D-ÃŽ ±-aminoadipic acid and D-2-amino-5phosphonopentanoic  acid (D-AP5) then glycine competitive antagonists like 7-chloro-5-iodokynurenic acid and partial agonists were identified. It was also soon recognized that some dissociative anesthetics (e.g. ketam ine and phencyclidine) were NMDA receptor blockers and the widely used inhibitor MK-801 was shown to be a potent NMDA receptor channel blocker Fig 2 (Monaghan et al., 2012). Another important aspect of NMDA receptor pharmacology is modulation by posttranslational modifications, such as phosphorylation of the intracellular C-terminal of NR2 subunits. NMDA receptor-mediated calcium increases activate many downstream targets like protein kinase C (PKC) and the Modulation by protein kinase C (PKC) depends on NMDA receptor subunit composition; NR2A- and NR2B-containing receptors are potentiated by PKC activation, whereas NR2Cand NR2D containing receptors are unaffected or inhibited by PKC. PKC phosphorylates the NR1 subunit at serine 890 (S890) in the C1 cassette. The potentiatory effects of PKC are not dependent on phosphorylation of NR1, but inhibitory effects are blocked by mutation of S890 or removal of the C1 domain. The NMDA receptor function is also modulated by MAGUK protein fami ly which controls the NMDA receptor localization, the binding to the scaffolding proteins plays a major role in the control of downstream signals resulting from receptor activation. It thought that synaptic NMDA receptors are retained at the synapse by an attachment to PSD-95 through a PDZ interaction with the NR2 subunits.(Gardoni and Di Luca, 2006) 3. Therapeutics A high number of central nervous system disease states in which neuronal cell death is associated to glutamate induced excitotoxicity could be treated by blocking NMDA receptors such as neurological disorders including ischemia, epilepsy, brain trauma, dementia, and neurodegenerative disorders. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Ischemia : it has been shown that loss of calcium homeostasis may be an important mechanism of ischemic brain damage. Ischemia also resulted in a decrease in the size of protein complexes containing PSD-95. In addition, transient cerebral ischemia increases tyrosine phosphorylation of NMDA receptor subunits NR2A and NR2B. Recent studies suggested to treat stroke transducing neurons with peptides able to disrupt the interaction of NMDA receptor NR2B subunits with the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95. This procedure dissociated NMDA receptors from downstream neurotoxic signaling without blocking synaptic activity or calcium influx and protected cultured neurons from excitotoxi city. .( Gardoni and Di Luca, 2006). Many NR1/NR2B antagonists, including ifenprodil, eliprodil and the selective and potent congeners, Ro 25,6981 and CP-101,606, offer promise in preclinical models of ischaemia (Chazot, 2004) à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Epilepsy: Recent work has suggested that hyper-phosphorylation of NR2B may results in hypersensitivity to the endogenous transmitter, and induction of neuronal hyperexcitability and epilepsy. Furthermore, kainic acid-induced alters tyrosine phosphorylation of NR2A and NR2B receptors. Interestingly, the high affinity NR2B compound, Ro 63-1908 was shown to be active versus acoustic-induced convulsions and NMDA-induced seizures at 4.5 mg/kg ip and 2.31 mg/kg iv, respectively and no adverse cardiovascular, motor deficits or other CNS sideeffects were observed at these active. (Chazot, 2004). à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Huntingtons disease: The normal huntingtin binds to PSD-95 scaffold protein which inhibit the NMDA receptor Overexpression of the normal huntin gtin N terminus significantly attenuates neuronal toxicity induced by both NMDA receptors and the mutated huntingtin. This suggests that PSD-95 is a mediator of neuronal toxicity induced by NMDA receptors and mutated huntingtin. In addition, in a transgenic model of Huntington disease. Other studies show that expression of mutant htt (but not wild-type htt) in combination with NR1/NR2B increases cell death compared to  transfection of only NMDA receptor subunits, suggesting a role for NR1/NR2B NMDA receptors in cell death mediated by mutant htt .As NR2B antagonists block most of the NMDA receptor mediated currents in neuronal models of Huntington, the selective localization of NR2B in the striatum may also play a role in the efficacy of NR2B antagonists against cell death in models of Huntington.( Gardoni and Di Luca, 2006). à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Alzheimers disease : In animal models, NR2B subunit expression decreases with age, which correlates well withreduced Long Term Potentiation (L TP) and inferior cognitive performance. The NR1/NR2B subtype decreases, in comparison to other subtypes, in the frontal cortex of aged humans while overexpression of the forebrain NR2B subunit in transgenic mice has been shown to have profound beneficial effects upon cognitive performance. Such information suggests that controlled potentiation of the NR2B may offer a novel strategy for treating cognitive disabilities. (Chazot, 2004). à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Parkinsons disease: At the molecular level, alterations of NMDA receptor subunits localization in striatum have been described in Dopamine-denervated rats as well as in L-DOPA-treated dyskinetic monkeys. In particular, NR2B subcellular redistribution from synaptic to extrasynaptic sites represents the key element in the complex modifications of the glutamatergic synapse in L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. On the other hand, recent studies in primates suggested that upregulation of NR2A abundance in synaptosomal membranesmay be an important pla yer in L-DOPA induced dyskinesias. And recently, two studies described results on the effects of NR2B selective NMDA receptor antagonist CP-101,606 on L-DOPA induced dyskinesia in two different models of experimental parkinsonism.( Gardoni and Di Luca, 2006). à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Psychosis : Studies have suggested that the NR2B has role in psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. The mRNA encoding the NR2B subunit and NR1/NR2B-type binding sites have been shown to be selectively increased in hippocampal and cortical regions, Recent work has identified a novel T200G variant located in the NR2B promoter, which endows dysfunction of the NR2B subunit. The frequency of this variant was significantly up-regulated in a schizophrenia group compared to a control group. The possible link between these observations is yet to be investigated. (Chazot, 2004). à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Pain: Studies suggest that the NR2B subunit plays distinct roles in acute and chronic pain states, re cently NR2B antagonists were developped, including Ro 25,6981, CP -101,606, PD 174494 and PD 196860, are effective in a range of animal chronic pain models with a wide separation between anti-hyperalgesic and side-effect doses . . (Chazot, 2004). 4. References Chazot, P. L. (2004). The NMDA receptor NR2B subunit: A valid therapeutic target for  multiple CNS pathologies. Curr. Med. Chem. 11, 389-396. Dzamba, D., Honsa, P. and Anderova, M. (2013). NMDA receptors in glial cells: Pending  questions. Current Neuropharmacology 11, 250-262. Gardoni, F. and Di Luca, M. (2006). New targets for pharmacological intervention in the  glutamatergic synapse. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 545, 2-10. Ghasemi, M. and Schachter, S. C. (2011). The NMDA receptor complex as a therapeutic  target in epilepsy: A review. Epilepsy Behavior 22, 617-640. Kemp, J. A. and McKernan, R. M. (2002). NMDA receptor pathways as drug targets. Nat.  Neurosci. 5, 1039-1042. Majdi, M. and Chen, H. V. (2009). NMDA-gated ion channel research and its therapeutic  potentials in neurodegenerative diseases: A review. Journal of Receptor, Ligand and Channel Research 2, 59-73. Monaghan, D. T., Irvine, M. W., Costa, B. M., Fang, G. and Jane, D. E. (2012).  Pharmacological modulation of NMDA receptor activity and the advent of negative and  positive allosteric modulators. Neurochem. Int. 61, 581-592. Mony, L., Kew, J. N., Gunthorpe, M. J. and Paoletti, P. (2009). Allosteric modulators of  NR2Bà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ containing NMDA receptors: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Br. J.  Pharmacol. 157, 1301-1317 Niciu, M. J., Kelmendi, B. and Sanacora, G. (2012). Overview of glutamatergic  neurotransmission in the nervous system. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 100,  656-664. Paoletti, P., Bellone, C. and Zhou, Q. (2013). NMDA receptor subunit diversity: Impact on  receptor properties, synaptic plasticity and disease. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 14, 383-400.

Impact on the Environment of Electrical and Electronics Products Essay

Impact on the Environment of Electrical and Electronics Products Introduction Electrical and Electronics products are now commonly found all around the world and the number is on the rise. The amount of such products that is being disposed is also on the rise. There is a concern on the environmental effect by such products that is being disposed as well as when it is being manufacturer. This is because most of these products contain either harmful substance or non bio-degradable materials which cause an impact on the environment. For these reasons, regulations and directives are being set up to safe guard and prevent more harm from being done to the environment. This report would be discussing on the harmful effects by traditional manufacturing and some of the regulatory and directive being set up around the world. Also, responses from the electronics industry with regards to the directives and regulations would be discussed. 1 Traditional manufacturing of electronic equipments 1.1 The use of soldering lead Solder comprised of tin and lead is currently a fundamental material joining electronic components to circuit boards in the assembly of almost every type of electronic product. Worldwide, over 20 million pounds of tin-lead solder are used annually. [1] 1.2 The manufacturing of PCBs In the process of making PCBs using the "subtractive" process, the circuit pattern is created by chemically etching copper from the unprotected (non-circuit) areas of the copper-coated panel, leaving circuit traces protected with photoresist. Etching can be accomplished with acids or bases, depending on the etch rate and the line width required. The most commonly used etchant is an aqueous solution of ferric chloride (FeCl3), used at temperatures over 50 Â °C. FeCl3 is acidic, relatively cheap, comparatively innocuous and versatile, attacking aluminium, copper, iron, nickel and their alloys. However, the spent etchant and its rinse water contain heavy metal ions such as nickel and chromium which are hazardous to the environment and most difficult to render harmless. Approximately 60% of the copper on the board is removed in the typical etching process. As the copper content of the etchant increases, the etchant cannot effectively remove the copper from the board, and it is consi... ...le. This also reduced the assembly time and lowered the production cost [17][18] References: [1] http://www.epa.gov [2] http://www.lsc.cc.mn.us/lib/classes/emuseum/disposal/disposal.html [3] http://www.nsc.org/library/facts/lead.htm [4] http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/chromium.html [5] http://www.pp.okstate.edu/ehs/training/mercury.htm [6]http://home.datacomm.ch/raabe/e_ee_1.pdf#search='DIRECTIVE%20OF%20THE%20EUROPEAN%20PARLIAMENT%20AND%20OF%20THE%20COUNCIL' [7] http://www.entecuk.com/client/ec/fr_appendixa.html#1 [8] http://www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/weee/ [9] http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/weee.pdf [10] http://www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/pdfs/finalrohs.pdf [11] http://www.2001elec.co.uk/RoHS/index.htm [12] http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/solder/solderfact.pdf [13] http://www.eia.org/new_policy/environment.phtm [14] http://www.iaer.org/communications/NL0200.html [15] http://www.svtc.org/cleancc/pubs/spheres_ehp.htm [16] http://techrepublic.com.com/5100-6265-1058179.html [17] Electronic Product Recovery and Recycling Conference Summary Report, Environmental Health Center, 1998 [18] Gertsakis, Ryan & Hoy, 1996 http://www.rsc.org On Rohs: References for my part. Impact on the Environment of Electrical and Electronics Products Essay Impact on the Environment of Electrical and Electronics Products Introduction Electrical and Electronics products are now commonly found all around the world and the number is on the rise. The amount of such products that is being disposed is also on the rise. There is a concern on the environmental effect by such products that is being disposed as well as when it is being manufacturer. This is because most of these products contain either harmful substance or non bio-degradable materials which cause an impact on the environment. For these reasons, regulations and directives are being set up to safe guard and prevent more harm from being done to the environment. This report would be discussing on the harmful effects by traditional manufacturing and some of the regulatory and directive being set up around the world. Also, responses from the electronics industry with regards to the directives and regulations would be discussed. 1 Traditional manufacturing of electronic equipments 1.1 The use of soldering lead Solder comprised of tin and lead is currently a fundamental material joining electronic components to circuit boards in the assembly of almost every type of electronic product. Worldwide, over 20 million pounds of tin-lead solder are used annually. [1] 1.2 The manufacturing of PCBs In the process of making PCBs using the "subtractive" process, the circuit pattern is created by chemically etching copper from the unprotected (non-circuit) areas of the copper-coated panel, leaving circuit traces protected with photoresist. Etching can be accomplished with acids or bases, depending on the etch rate and the line width required. The most commonly used etchant is an aqueous solution of ferric chloride (FeCl3), used at temperatures over 50 Â °C. FeCl3 is acidic, relatively cheap, comparatively innocuous and versatile, attacking aluminium, copper, iron, nickel and their alloys. However, the spent etchant and its rinse water contain heavy metal ions such as nickel and chromium which are hazardous to the environment and most difficult to render harmless. Approximately 60% of the copper on the board is removed in the typical etching process. As the copper content of the etchant increases, the etchant cannot effectively remove the copper from the board, and it is consi... ...le. This also reduced the assembly time and lowered the production cost [17][18] References: [1] http://www.epa.gov [2] http://www.lsc.cc.mn.us/lib/classes/emuseum/disposal/disposal.html [3] http://www.nsc.org/library/facts/lead.htm [4] http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/chromium.html [5] http://www.pp.okstate.edu/ehs/training/mercury.htm [6]http://home.datacomm.ch/raabe/e_ee_1.pdf#search='DIRECTIVE%20OF%20THE%20EUROPEAN%20PARLIAMENT%20AND%20OF%20THE%20COUNCIL' [7] http://www.entecuk.com/client/ec/fr_appendixa.html#1 [8] http://www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/weee/ [9] http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/weee.pdf [10] http://www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/pdfs/finalrohs.pdf [11] http://www.2001elec.co.uk/RoHS/index.htm [12] http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/solder/solderfact.pdf [13] http://www.eia.org/new_policy/environment.phtm [14] http://www.iaer.org/communications/NL0200.html [15] http://www.svtc.org/cleancc/pubs/spheres_ehp.htm [16] http://techrepublic.com.com/5100-6265-1058179.html [17] Electronic Product Recovery and Recycling Conference Summary Report, Environmental Health Center, 1998 [18] Gertsakis, Ryan & Hoy, 1996 http://www.rsc.org On Rohs: References for my part.

tragoed Metamorphosis of the Tragedy in Oedipus Rex, Hamlet, and Desir

Metamorphosis of the Tragedy in Oedipus Rex, Hamlet, and Desire Under the Elms Tragedy is considered by many to be the greatest of the genres. Often something goes wrong and exposes something great. Characters generally have more depth as evidenced by Hamlet. Tragedy shows up in the great periods of history: Classical Greece, Renaissance, and the early 20th century. It is a far more complex genre than comedy or romance. It teaches people to think since the storylines never have a simple answer or resolution. We see this in Desire Under the Elms. Family relationships and inheritances are complicated and even when Abbie kills the baby, Eben decides to join her in her guilty plea when he is clearly not a participant in the murder. Unlike comedy, there is less spectacle onstage. Iokaste hangs herself offstage, King Hamlet's murder is only reenacted but not seen directly, and the audience doesn't see Abbie murder her baby. This forces or allows the audience members to use their imaginations to envision these crucial scenes, adding a layer of complexity t o the play. Hamlet we are reminded of fate by the line, "There's a divinity that shapes our ends." Then in Desire, Cabot consistently looked to God for direction. These situations don't allow us to remain passive and simply be entertained when we view tragedy. We must grapple with the tough issues of life. Â   Plot is considered significant in tragedy for many reasons. . Plot examines the limits of human greatness. It is the most examined area in the study of literature probably because it is unique to humans. It can be both edifying for an audience and, at the same time, allow for a catharsis. Plot allows characters to play out their fate. Freud believe... ...e less class conscious, the need for high status of one man disappears. In Desire the hero(es) were farmers. Â   Another way that tragedy has evolved is through more comedy being added to the tragedy. Oedipus has no real comic scenes. Hamlet had a few, but Desire had evidence of comedy sprinkled throughout by way of the brothers, the dance, food and drink, and animal references. Tragedy also had evolved to the point of having more romance. Again romance was missing from Oedipus, we saw a bit more in Hamlet between Claudius and Gertrude and Hamlet and Ophelia. But then in the modern tragedy romance is at the center of the play, albeit an uncomfortable, complicated romance. Some example in the play Desire include: the sexual advances, the kiss and walk away together, the reuniting at the end, stage directions that describe the physical appearance. Â  

Multifactorial Model of Health Psychology

The multifactorial model in health psychology is a leading paradigm that recognizes the multi-faceted nature of illnesses. It is not a clear-cut, simple case that a disease is caused by a singular factor. The fact is that decades if not over a century of modern research has led to the recognition that a host of factors, as well as their interactions, function in illness and health determination (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). These varied factors that the multifactorial model indicates to be the range of possible influences or causes of diseases cover the psychological, sociocultural, environmental, and stressors. This broad range of factors, which include both those within and without one's control, determine an individual's health and his/her level of susceptibility to health problems (Nevid & Rathus, p. 127). Psychological or personality and behavior factors figure in quite a large number of health problems. Such is seen in the large number of preventable deaths that occur yearly in the United States. For one, smoking leads to way over 400,000 annual deaths from cancer, diseases of the heart and lungs, and stroke. Some 300,000 year deaths stroke, heart disease, cancer, and diabetes can actually be prevented with good diet and proper exercise. Immunizations, moderation or control of alcohol drinking, and abstinence or safe sex practices could also help prevent deaths from infectious diseases, vehicular and other accidents/injuries, and sexually transmitted diseases, respectively (Nevid & Rathus, p. 128). It should be well noted that depression and other negative psychological states could actually render an impaired immune system functioning (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). The reason for this is that, contrary to popular thinking, the mental and the physical are not entirely separate domains but, rather intertwined (Nevid & Rathus, p. 131). Biological factors include age, gender, genetics, as well as injuries, exposure to pathogens and inoculations. One's genetic make-up, while beyond an individual's capacity to be altered, tend to make certain people falsely assume that their health is doomed by, say, a family history of diabetes. Having a family history of a disease can make some people think fatalistically that nothing they do can improve their chances of overcoming or escaping a disease. Dr. Robert N. Hoover of the National Cancer Institute, however, says that many cases of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and others merely give rise to predispositions, not really certainties (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). Environmental factors include pollution, water quality, hygiene from solid waster treatment and sanitation, natural disasters, and even global warming and depletion of the ozone layer. Personal stressors cover a wide range of situations such as daily hassles at home, co-workers, time pressure, and financial insecurity; frustrations; major life changes; workplace situation; and isolation or rejection by peers (Nevid & Rathus, p. 27). Thus, in the diagnosis of illnesses, the multifactorial model considers the possible roles played by psychological, biological, environmental/cultural factors, along with their interactions (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). In the United States, the application of the psychological health model can be seen in studies that attempt to explain the phenomenon of black Americans seemingly suffering from health problems more compared to the European Americans. The ethnicity consideration has led to studies showing that African-Americans may indeed be genetically predisposed to hypertension but, at the same time, poor diet, stress and smoking contribute to the development of the disease. Such consideration has also led to findings that the tendency of Afro-Americans to have lower access level to quality health care help explain, for instance, why they are less prone to receive surgeries for hip and knee replacements (Nevid & Rathus, p. 128). Use of Psychology in Understanding Illnesses Diagnosing, understanding and managing headaches have been helped a lot with the use of psychology. The multifactorial model views headaches, migraine headaches in particular, as being triggered by multiple factors that include fluctuations in hormonal levels/balance, stress, barometric pressure changes, exposure to very bright lights, certain drug use, certain chemical ingestion, and certain foods, among others (Nevid & Rathus, p. 132). Said factors, of course, involve biological and environmental factors, but also psychological ones which are more the concern of health psychology—how psychological factors interact with physical health problems, including in terms of triggering, preventing, or treating diseases (Nevid & Rathus, p. 18). Health psychology studies have shown that stress figures in migraine headaches. The causal mechanisms that underlie migraines have been described to be complex and not well understood—with neurotransmitter serotonin imbalance and resulting blood flow changes in the brain appearing to be related somehow. The psychological perspective ha s identified stress and glaring lights exposure, among others, as possible triggers for migraine headaches. As well, this branch of psychology has indicated that behavioral coping responses may help people deal with headaches. While evidence collated in a study showing that women suffering from regular migraines tend to be more self-critical, likely to make a big thing of life's stresses, and less likely to look for social support during periods of stress, is only correlation, the study does suggest that people's behavior may inadvertently be leading them into a vicious cycle. Psychology shows that with recurrent headaches such as migraine, certain behaviors help trigger the illness as much as how the refusal to avail of social support may further aggravate emotional distress and pain from migraines (Nevid & Rathus, p. 32). With advances in health science in general, headaches today are better managed, with its triggers even being avoided. Psychology has helpe understand and cope with migraines also by way of advising people, women in particular, not to accept such an illness as â€Å"normal† and, instead, advise them to be more assertive with their doctors who limit migraine treatments to only one approach (Nevid & Rathus, p. 133). The importance of health psychology is, perhaps, more apparent in the case of coronary heart disease or CHD. This is because this leading cause of mortality in the US clearly lists several types of psychological factors as triggers: diet patterns; anger and hostility; Type A behavior that markedly consists of hostility; job strain; chronic emotional strain and fatigue; sudden stressors; and an inactive lifestyle (Nevid & Rathus, p. 135-137). Health psychology science has established how consumption patterns such as overeating, heavy alcohol drinking, smoking, and high-cholesterol diet lead to coronary heart ailments. It is also worth noting that the science has also identified that a minimal amount of alcohol appears to be beneficial to the heart. The psychological perspective also makes the suggestion that a modest association between coronary heart disease and Type A behavior exists, particularly among white, middle-aged-to-older men. Hostility and anger are closely linked with increased CHD risk and are even thought of to be a stronger predictor of CHD compared to genetics, obesity, or smoking (Nevid & Rathus, p. 35). With regards work-related psychological factor, the job-strain health psychology model helps understand how highly demanding jobs and jobs that gives workers little control lead to increased risk of heart-related illnesses (Nevid & Rathus, p. 136). The multifactorial health psychology perspective has also led to the understanding of how sudden life stressors, chronic fatigue/emotional strain and a physically inactive lifestyle figure in the development of heart disease and occurr ence of heart attacks. The multifactorial model in health psychology is a leading paradigm that recognizes the multi-faceted nature of illnesses. It is not a clear-cut, simple case that a disease is caused by a singular factor. The fact is that decades if not over a century of modern research has led to the recognition that a host of factors, as well as their interactions, function in illness and health determination (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). These varied factors that the multifactorial model indicates to be the range of possible influences or causes of diseases cover the psychological, ociocultural, environmental, and stressors. This broad range of factors, which include both those within and without one's control, determine an individual's health and his/her level of susceptibility to health problems (Nevid & Rathus, p. 127). Psychological or personality and behavior factors figure in quite a large number of health problems. Such is seen in the large number of preventable deaths that occur yearly in the United States. For one, smoking leads to way over 400,000 annual deaths from cancer, diseases of the heart and lungs, and stroke. Some 300,000 year deaths stroke, heart disease, cancer, and diabetes can actually be prevented with good diet and proper exercise. Immunizations, moderation or control of alcohol drinking, and abstinence or safe sex practices could also help prevent deaths from infectious diseases, vehicular and other accidents/injuries, and sexually transmitted diseases, respectively (Nevid & Rathus, p. 128). It should be well noted that depression and other negative psychological states could actually render an impaired immune system functioning (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). The reason for this is that, contrary to popular thinking, the mental and the physical are not entirely separate domains but, rather intertwined (Nevid & Rathus, p. 131). Biological factors include age, gender, genetics, as well as injuries, exposure to pathogens and inoculations. One's genetic make-up, while beyond an individual's capacity to be altered, tend to make certain people falsely assume that their health is doomed by, say, a family history of diabetes. Having a family history of a disease can make some people think fatalistically that nothing they do can improve their chances of overcoming or escaping a disease. Dr. Robert N. Hoover of the National Cancer Institute, however, says that many cases of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and others merely give rise to predispositions, not really certainties (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). Environmental factors include pollution, water quality, hygiene from solid waster treatment and sanitation, natural disasters, and even global warming and depletion of the ozone layer. Personal stressors cover a wide range of situations such as daily hassles at home, co-workers, time pressure, and financial insecurity; frustrations; major life changes; workplace situation; and isolation or rejection by peers (Nevid & Rathus, p. 27). Thus, in the diagnosis of illnesses, the multifactorial model considers the possible roles played by psychological, biological, environmental/cultural factors, along with their interactions (Nevid & Rathus, p. 126). In the United States, the application of the psychological health model can be seen in studies that attempt to explain the phenomenon of black Americans seemingly suffering from health problems more compared to the European Americans. The ethnicity consideration has led to studies showing that African-Americans may indeed be genetically predisposed to hypertension but, at the same time, poor diet, stress and smoking contribute to the development of the disease. Such consideration has also led to findings that the tendency of Afro-Americans to have lower access level to quality health care help explain, for instance, why they are less prone to receive surgeries for hip and knee replacements (Nevid & Rathus, p. 128). Use of Psychology in Understanding Illnesses Diagnosing, understanding and managing headaches have been helped a lot with the use of psychology. The multifactorial model views headaches, migraine headaches in particular, as being triggered by multiple factors that include fluctuations in hormonal levels/balance, stress, barometric pressure changes, exposure to very bright lights, certain drug use, certain chemical ingestion, and certain foods, among others (Nevid & Rathus, p. 132). Said factors, of course, involve biological and environmental factors, but also psychological ones which are more the concern of health psychology—how psychological factors interact with physical health problems, including in terms of triggering, preventing, or treating diseases (Nevid & Rathus, p. 18). Health psychology studies have shown that stress figures in migraine headaches. The causal mechanisms that underlie migraines have been described to be complex and not well understood—with neurotransmitter serotonin imbalance and resulting blood flow changes in the brain appearing to be related somehow. The psychological perspective ha s identified stress and glaring lights exposure, among others, as possible triggers for migraine headaches. As well, this branch of psychology has indicated that behavioral coping responses may help people deal with headaches. While evidence collated in a study showing that women suffering from regular migraines tend to be more self-critical, likely to make a big thing of life's stresses, and less likely to look for social support during periods of stress, is only correlation, the study does suggest that people's behavior may inadvertently be leading them into a vicious cycle. Psychology shows that with recurrent headaches such as migraine, certain behaviors help trigger the illness as much as how the refusal to avail of social support may further aggravate emotional distress and pain from migraines (Nevid & Rathus, p. 32). With advances in health science in general, headaches today are better managed, with its triggers even being avoided. Psychology has helpe understand and cope with migraines also by way of advising people, women in particular, not to accept such an illness as â€Å"normal† and, instead, advise them to be more assertive with their doctors who limit migraine treatments to only one approach (Nevid & Rathus, p. 133). The importance of health psychology is, perhaps, more apparent in the case of coronary heart disease or CHD. This is because this leading cause of mortality in the US clearly lists several types of psychological factors as triggers: diet patterns; anger and hostility; Type A behavior that markedly consists of hostility; job strain; chronic emotional strain and fatigue; sudden stressors; and an inactive lifestyle (Nevid & Rathus, p. 135-137). Health psychology science has established how consumption patterns such as overeating, heavy alcohol drinking, smoking, and high-cholesterol diet lead to coronary heart ailments. It is also worth noting that the science has also identified that a minimal amount of alcohol appears to be beneficial to the heart. The psychological perspective also makes the suggestion that a modest association between coronary heart disease and Type A behavior exists, particularly among white, middle-aged-to-older men. Hostility and anger are closely linked with increased CHD risk and are even thought of to be a stronger predictor of CHD compared to genetics, obesity, or smoking (Nevid & Rathus, p. 135). With regards work-related psychological factor, the job-strain health psychology model helps understand how highly demanding jobs and jobs that gives workers little control lead to increased risk of heart-related illnesses (Nevid & Rathus, p. 136). The multifactorial health psychology perspective has also led to the understanding of how sudden life stressors, chronic fatigue/emotional strain and a physically inactive lifestyle figure in the development of heart disease and occurrence of heart attacks. Reference Nevid, J. S. and Rathus, S. A. (2000). Psychology and the challenges of life. John Wiley & Sons.